化合物详情

... The radioactivity /of plutonium/ (mainly due to fallout) measured in autopsied human tissues of nonoccupationally exposed persons ranged, at the beginning of the 1980s, from 1 to 10 mBq/kg for lung for populations as different as those of the United States, Finland, Western Europe, and Japan. The values for the liver and vertebra burdens ranged from 10 to 40 and 3 to 40 mBecqueral/kg, respectively. For tracheobronchial lymph nodes, the burden may be as much as 100 mBq/kg.

ATMOSPHERIC FATE: Plutonium compounds would exist solely in the particulate phase in the ambient atmosphere since they are ionic and would not be volatile. Particulate-phase plutonium compounds will be removed from the atmosphere by wet and dry deposition. (SRC)

Typical distribution coefficients in sediments from the Irish Sea for plutonium-239+plutonium-240 were on the order of 10+5 L/kg(1).

Bioconcentration factors of 1.6X10+4 and 2X10+3 in brown macroalgae and <500 and 40 in fish muscle were reported for plutonium-239+240(1). Bioconcentration factors of 1,000 for mollusks and algae, 100 in crustacea, and 10 for fish have been reported for plutonium(2). Plutonium was found to accumulated in bones of fish, rather than in muscle tissue(2).

Plutonium compounds are ionic and would not volatilize from moist or dry soil surfaces or from water surfaces. (SRC)

Plutonium can undergo oxidation-reduction, ligand exchange, and precipitation reactions in the environment(SRC). In acidic solutions plutonium can exist in the III, IV, V, and VI oxidation states, and can be oxidized to Pu(VII) in alkaline solutions(1). The Pu(III-VI) oxidation states can exist simultaneously in solution(1). Plutonium oxidizes rapidly, forming insoluble PuO2, which is the most common form of plutonium in the environment(2). Plutonium ions can form complex ions with simple hard Lewis bases, such as ligands with oxygen donor groups, in order of decreasing stability Pu4+>(PuO2)2+>Pu3+>(PuO2)+(1). Pu(III) ion forms weak complexes with fluoride, chloride, nitrate, and sulfate ions and stronger complexes with oxygen donor groups such as carbonate, oxalate, and polycarboxylate...

RAIN/SNOW/FOG: Plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 cannot be distinguished by alpha spectroscopy and are usually reported together(1). Plutonium-238 concentrations in 19 ice layers collected on the Hurd Glacier (Livingston Island, Antarctica between 1993-94 ranged from 0.76 to 59 uBq/L; plutonium-239+plutonium-240 concentrations ranged from 16 to 45 uBq/L(1).

... The levels of plutonium in food and in the environment are not significant as a radiation hazard, despite its being more toxic than radium as a potent carcinogen ...

Assessments of potential internal exposures of the child following radionuclide intakes by the mother require consideration of transfers during lactation as well as during pregnancy. Current ICRP work on internal dosimetry includes the estimation of radiation doses to newborn infants from radionuclides ingested in mothers' milk. ... Comparisons of model predictions show ... low values of less than 0.01% for plutonium-239 ... . The corresponding infant doses from milk consumption are estimated in preliminary calculations to be ... <0.1% for plutonium-239 ...

Plutonium concentrations were measured in various environmental matrices collected from Antarctica at the Ross Sea region surrounding the Italian Terra Nova Base in 1989-96 (2). Mean plutonium-239+plutonium-240 and plutonium-238 concentrations ranged from 0.328-0.908 and 0.0452-0.206 Bq/kg in mosses, respectively(2). Mean plutonium-239+plutonium-240 and plutonium-238 concentrations in lichens were 4.64 and 0.747 Bq/kg, respectively(2).

Among the major effluents from the use and processing of nuclear fuel are ... plutonium. ... Of these, only tritium and plutonium can possibly enter water supplies. The predominant form of plutonium release from nuclear power and processing plants is as an aerosol that will have little or no impact on drinking water. Although a single incident has occurred in which as much as 18,750 Ci of plutonium were released from liquid storage on a local basis, none apparently reached off site water supplies. The usual rate of release from liquid storage at a controlled sites is about 1 mCi/yr.

Plutonium occurs in natural ores in very small amounts(1). The atomic ratio of plutonium to uranium in uranium ores is <1 to 10+11(1). The atom to atom ratio of plutonium to uranium in uranium ores is <1 to 10+11 (e.g., less than one atom of plutonium per 10+11 atoms of uranium)(1).

URBAN/SUBURBAN: Plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 cannot be distinguished by alpha spectroscopy and are usually reported together(1). The concentrations of plutonium-239+plutonium-240 in air in Prague, the Czech Republic in 1993-95 ranged from <0.5 to 5.5 nBq/cu m; the source of plutonium-239+plutonium-240 was the resuspension of fallout plutonium in air from the topsoil layer(2).

Plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 cannot be distinguished by alpha spectroscopy and are usually reported together(1). Plutonium-239+plutonium-240 concentrations in mussels collected in 1977 and 1978 from Bodega Head, CA and from Narragansett Bay, RI ranged from 1.9 to 4.6 and 0.3 to 2.1 disintegrations per minute per kg dry weight, respectively(2). There are 4 nuclear power plants and one research institute with two small nuclear reactors along the river Elbe in Germany(3). Plutonium-238 and plutonium-239+plutonium-240 was not detected (<0.1 mBq/kg) in fish collected from the river Elbe(3).

Plutonium may be released to the environment by nuclear weapons testing, accidents involving weapons transport, nuclear reactors, radioisotope generators, fuel processing and reprocessing, and fuel transport(1). Atmospheric nuclear weapons testing is the main source of plutonium in the environment, and is the largest source of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 in the environment(1). An estimated 1.3X10+16 Bq of plutonium-239+plutonium-240 have been released to the environment from atmospheric detonation of nuclear weapons(2). An estimated 7.9X10+14 Bq of plutonium-238 has been released, mostly from the burn-up of the nuclear powered satellite SNAP-9(2). An estimated 3.7X10+13 Bq of plutonium-239+plutonium-240 was released from the Chernobyl accident(2). Between 1954 and 1974 approximately...

SEDIMENT: Plutonium-239+plutonium240, plutonium-238, plutonium-241 concentrations were measured in intertidal sediment from the Irish Sea; concentrations ranged from for 2.3-1,804, 0.32-34.7, and 218-37,884 Bq/kg dry weight, respectively(1). Plutonium-238 and plutonium-239-plutonium-240 concentrations in surface sediments from the Mediterranean Sea near the Vandellos Nuclear Power Plant collected in 1989 ranged from 0.22-0.80 and 8.2-12.6 Bq/kg, respectively(2).

Individuals working at facilities using or processing plutonium or uranium may be exposed to plutonium compounds(1). As plutonium is dispersed throughout the environment due to past atmospheric nuclear weapons testing, the general population will have some exposure to plutonium compounds(SRC). An estimated 50-year dose from plutonium due to atmospheric nuclear weapons testing conducted before 1973 is 0.2 millirad for individuals living in the north temperate zone of the earth(1). Individual living near facilities that use or process plutonium may have higher exposures to plutonium compounds than the general population(SRC).

Plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 cannot be distinguished by alpha spectroscopy and are usually reported together(1). Plutonium-239+plutonium-240 concentrations in attic dust collected in 1996 and 1997 from communities surrounding the Nevada Test Site in southern Nevada and southern Utah ranged from 0.012 to 0.151 pCi/g(4).

Plutonium may be released to the environment by nuclear weapons testing, accidents involving weapons transport, nuclear reactors, radioisotope generators, fuel processing and reprocessing, and fuel transport. Atmospheric nuclear weapons testing is the main source of plutonium in the environment, and is the largest source of plutonium-239 and plutonium-240 in the environment. Plutonium was first discovered in 1940. Plutonium isotopes with mass numbers 232-246 have been identified and all are radioactive. Plutonium-239 is the most important isotope, as well as plutonium-238, plutonium-242, and plutonium-244. Plutonium forms compounds with many metallic elements and all of the nonmetallic elements, except those of the noble gas group. Plutonium occurs in naturally occurring ores in very sm...

Exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation results in acute radiation syndrome, which can cause skin burns, hair loss, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, disorientation, low blood pressure, headache, fatigue, weakness, fever, birth defects, illness, infection, and death. (L1837, L1852)

Treatment reversing the effects of irradiation is currently not possible. Anaesthetics and antiemetics are administered to counter the symptoms of exposure, as well as antibiotics for countering secondary infections due to the resulting immune system deficiency. (L1852)

Exposure to alpha radiation and genotoxic chemical comprised four groups, each of 32 animals receiving plutonium inhalation followed by urethane (PU), plutonium followed by saline (PS), mock inhalation followed by urethane (MU), and mock inhalation followed by saline (MS). Exposures consisted of initial lung burdens of 925 Bq 239-PU and ip urethane injections of 1mg/g body weight two weeks later . Eight weeks after the injections, PS-treated animals showed no increase in pulmonary tumors over control animals (MS), whereas practically all animals in the PU and MU groups had multiple tumors. The number of tumors per animal 8, 16, and 24 weeks after urethane treatment was clearly lower in the PU group which had 4.2, 11.4 and 13 as compared with 8, 24.4, and 38 in the MU group. /239-Plutoni...

Cancer

Plutonium's radioactivity can cause cancers of the bone, liver, and lungs if ingested or inhaled. Large amounts may also cause acute radiation poisoning. (L1840)

IARC Carcinogen - Class 1: International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies chemicals as established human carcinogens.

Oral (L1840); inhalation (L1840); dermal (L1840)

The alpha radiation plutonium emits does not penetrate the skin but can irradiate internal organs when plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk are the skeleton, where it is likely to be absorbed by the bone surface, and the liver, where it collects and becomes concentrated. The ionizing radiation produced by plutonium causes cellular damage that includes DNA breakage, accurate or inaccurate repair, apoptosis, gene mutations, chromosomal change, and genetic instability. This leads to loss of normal cell and tissue homeostasis, and development of malignancy. Ionizing radiation that does not directly damage DNA can produce reactive oxygen intermediates that directly affect the stability of p53, an important enzyme in cell-cycle regulation, and produce oxidative damage to ind... CDC-ATSDR Toxicological Profile

An estimated daily ingestion of 0.0045 pCi/day of plutonium-239+plutonium240 was reported for in food in Japan (1978-80) due to atmospheric fallout(1). A mean intake of 0.0044 pCi/day of plutonium was reported in New York City (1974) from all sources including tap water(1).

1, carcinogenic to humans. (L135)

Plutonium-239 (239-Pu) is carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). In making this overall evaluation, the Working Group noted that human exposure to 239-Pu may also include exposure to 240-Pu.